Cormorants, Herons, Storks 
         Large numbers of Little Cormorants, a few Indian Shags nest in mangroves around the coast, together with Little Egrets, Great Egrets, Javan Pond Herons and Black-crowned Night Herons. However, there has never been an attempt to census these breeding populations. The egrets and night herons, at least, are joined by winter visitors from further north. Grey Herons formerly bred but so far as known, the local breeding population has been extirpated and all birds now present are migrants. 
          There is at least one recovery of a Grey Heron banded as a nestling in SE Siberia and recovered in its first year of life at Samut Sakhon. 
          One of the most significant phenomena is the occurrence of up to 200 Painted Storks,20-30 Spot-billed Pelicans and other large waterbirds in the gulf during August-October. Concentrations have been noted at this time for a least 15 years, but only recently has the location of grounded flocks been pinpointed, on large, newly drained prawn-ponds around Phetchaburi. These large, globally threatened or near-threatened species which formerly nested in Thailand, but which are now extinct as breeding birds, and birds occurring in Thailand are though probably to be birds which have dispersed from the Great Lake in Cambodia, following the breeding season, when large areas become inundated and therefore inaccessible to such wading birds. This hypothesis is strengthened by the occasional presence of 1-3 Milky Storks in these concentrations. 

Shorebird and waterbird habitats in the gulf 
           The chief significance of the gulf lies in its great extent of open mudflats, estimated by Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol(1999) to cover 235 km.² Birds flight out to feed on these mudflats by probing in the soft sediments as they become exposed during parts of the tidal cycle. Some limited information on benthic fauna in the mudflats is given by Erftermeijer and Jugmongkol (1999).      
           However, also of Importance are the great expanse of prawn-ponds and saltpans in the hinterland. Modern highly-intensive, deep prawn-ponds are of negligible importance for wildlife and are environmentally destructive. Traditional prawn ponds, which raise native shrimp by non-intensive means are extremely important waterfowl habitat. These ponds are shallowly flooded during much of the cycle, when they may be accessed by longerlegged waders such as Black-winged Stilts and Tringa Sandpipers. When the ponds are drained in the course of harvest, they essentially become mudflats, and a great variety of shorebirds and other waterfowl use them. Some of the largest such ponds, over 1 km² in area support concentrations of up 200 Painted Stork, and 10-20 Spot-billed Pelicans at certain times of year. 
          Salt-pans tend to be of particular importance for the smallest waders, especially stints Calidris spp. When shallowly flooded, and in providing secure roosting areas for sand plovers and other species when dry. 
         The raised bunds among saltpans and prawn-ponds are used by the great variety of waterfowl for roosting, and are used also as nesting areas by two groundnesting species, Black- winged Stilt and Little Tern. 
          Erftermeijer and Jugmongkol (1999) estimated prawn-ponds and abandoned prawn-ponds as covering roughly 400 km² and salt-pands as 320 km ²
          Mangroves are a key resource in that they underpin the richness of the intertidal system through input of organic detritus and in providing a habitat for smaller aquatic animals. But while egrets and cormorants make use of them for nesting, and a few waders, (e.g., Common Redshank) may use them as roosts at high tide, they are otherwise used by relatively few waterfowl. In a seeming paradox, therefore, blanketing large areas of mudflat by planting mangrove trees, as is increasingly taking place in the name of “coastal resource conservation” may be damaging rather than beneficial since it is depriving many birds of their mudflat feeding habitat. 
Sites 
          A number of areas within the gulf can be pinpointed as of particular importance. Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol(1999) divided the Inner gulf into four sectors, and these divisions are followed here. Some marked differences are noticeable between the two counts, and these may be partly due to differences in counting methods (Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol used boats for some counts, while the BCST count was entirely shore-based. In addition, BCST were unable to cover intertidal mudflats due to high tides throughout most of the count period. 
         Ertfemeijer and Jugmongkol (1999) found the highest shorebirds numbers and densities were to the east and to the west of the Tachin river mouth. The second highest density (166\km-1) was found west of the mouth of the Mae Klong, but this was a relatively short piece of coastline (15 km) and the total numbers of shorebirds were lower. The density of shorebirds in the eastern gulf, between the Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong rivers was barely more than one-third of the found in the two sectors to the west.
         The BCST count found a similarly high number of shorebirds west of the Tachin River Mouth; did not cover the eastern part of the gulf. But the highest total numbers and density of birds were found south of the Phetchaburi River Mouth. These were five times higher than those found by Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol (1999). This difference is unlikely to be due to different seasonality of usage, and is almost certainly due to better coverage of this sector achieved by BCST. 
         Some care is therefore needed to interpret data obtained up to the present. However, it can immediately be stated that the areas extending from the Mae Klong river mouth in the west, eastwards to the Chao Phraya River Mouth, are extremely important for shorebirds. These sectors are also those which hold the globally highly significant. The Phetchaburi coastline from the mouth of the Phetchaburi river south to Laem Phak Bia is also of particular importance. In addition to supporting large numbers of shorebirds, it is also an area much frequented by globally threatened and near-threatened storks and pelicans. 

Threats 
        While Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol (1999) outline a number of threats to shorebird populations, including hunting of waterfowl, indirect disturbance, overfishing, pollution, and so-called "reforestation" of mudflat habitat, it is clear that the single most importance threat is posed by changing land-use, especially industrialization and landspeculation. While hunting and other direst persecution has clearly been a major factor in the disappearance of many larger waterbirds, probably including such former resident as Black-headed Ibis, Grey heron and Large Cormorant, its impact on other waterfowl remains to be judged. Large-scale illegal netting of waterbirds was still being practised up to at least the 1980s, while today illegal bird-nets are still commonly encountered. Prawn-farmers also shoot birds. However, the impact of this upon shorebird populations remains to be judged. Traditional uses through fisheries, prawn-and salt farming have for the most part, coexisted with bird populations. 
          On the other hand, land-speculation, industrialization and urbanization pose a much more serious threat because they threaten to destroy intertidal mudflat habitat once and for all. Large tracts of land either in public ownership, or owned by small holders have been bought up by Thai banks and business conglomerates. Since many of these are financial backers of prominent politicians in both government and opposition, it is doubtful that there is either the political will or conservation awareness to conserve coastal areas. Yet once an area has been land-filled and built over, the destruction is irreversible: it can not he returned to mudflats. 
          Linked with this is a further threat posed by gradually eroding coastline, combined perhaps with projected global warming. According to Vongvisessomjai (1992) at least 7 km² of coastline in the inner gulf west of Samut Sakhon was lost due to erosion during 1969-1987, with a maximum eroded distance of 500 m. SEATEC (1996) placed erosion rates in recent years throughout the gulf at 1.4-1.6 m per year. This process is caused or exacerbated by reduced siltloads from dams upstream and from uncontrolled extraction of groundwaters for household and industrial use. The response of government agencies has been to build concrete walls combined with planting mangrove on the mudflats. This means that waterbirds ale being doubly “squeezed”. They are losing land on the coastal side from the flood defences, and inland due to ugly, unregulated urban sprawl. 

Recommendations 
          The Inner Gulf of Thailand is a wetland of outstanding international importance: perhaps in terms of sheer numbers and variety of waterfowl it supports, the single most important such in the entire country. Many of its key biodiversity values have been maintained alongside a huge human presence, and against, and in spite of, being subject to significant environ- mental degradation.
Conservation and management 
           Its values already identified are more than sufficient to justify nominating a significant proportion of the inner gulf, if not the entire area, as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (Convention of Wetlands of International Importance especially as waterfowl habitat). Designating the gulf as a Ramsar site would in no sense prevent future development to implement appropriate planning to ensure wise use. Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol(l999) made 6 recommendations for conservation and management of the inner gulf in the short term. Of these, the most important are probably: Nominate the Inner Gulf for inclusion as a listed site in the East Asian-Australasian Shorebird Site network 
           Establishing Non-hunting Areas under the Wild Animals Reservations and Protection Act (1992) on key sites within the gulf 
           Designate the intertidal flats in the gulf as Environmental Protection Areas as provided for under the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act (1992) 
           Develop an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan for the Gulf. Such a plan would incorporate environmental, social and economic needs into one single plan for long term sustainable development. 
Surveys and monitoring 
           Occasional, high profile surveys, such as that reported on by Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol(1999) usefully attract attention, but tend to obscure the fact that knowledge of waterfowl numbers and usage in the gulf of Thailand is still fragmentary and incomplete. Most data has been collected not by conservation agencies, government bodies or universities, but by amateur birdwatchers, especially Bird Conservation Society of Thailand members. 
           Improved knowledge of waterfowl numbers, distribution and patterns of seasonal usage, including locations of breeding colonies and feeding areas, is a prerequisite for future management. It is therefore recommended that a programme of routine monitoring of waterbirds be established year-round in the gulf for an indefinite period of up to years. Such counts, based on those routinely carried out for waterfowl sites in Europe and N America by volunteers, could be carried out monthly throughout the year by BCST, university students and others. More frequent monitoring at key sites within the gulf and during key periods, especially spring and autumn migration, could be made. Some coordination costs would be necessary, as would petrol costs.
          Banding operations should he carried out so as to help determine bird’s origins, study moult and weight gain, migration patterns, etc.. Such operations could be conducted jointly by Wildlife Conservation Division, (RED), volunteer foreign bird-banders, and locals, and co-ordinated either by a university or NGO.
          Other recommendations made in Erftemeijer and Jugmongkol (1999) include increased benthic ampling, study of fisheries and fishery-based activities, saltfarming, etc.
Conclusions 
          In spite of the fact that the economic richness and diversity, and cultural values of present day Thailand and historical Siam are largely derived from the country’s dependence on wetlands, wetland conservation has been almost totally neglected up to the present. In an era of land subsidence, rapidly eroding coastline, almost certainly being now exacerbated by global warming, the very survival of Bangkok may depend upon maintaining extensive and diverse mangroves and intertidal mudflats as buffers. It is therefore imperative to develop and implement a plan for coastal zoning and management which takes account of the areas unique values. Urgent consideration should be given towards niminating the entire inner gulf, or significant parts thereof, as a Ramsar site.

References
Erftemeijer, P.L.A. and R. Jugmongkol, 1999. Migatory Shorebirds and their Habitat in The Inner Gulf of Thailand. Wetlands International and Bird Conservation Society of Thailand, Bangkok and Hat Yai, Wetlands International- Thailand Programme, Publication No. 13.
Gairdner, KG.. 1914. Notes on the fauna and flora of Ratburi and Petchaburi districts.journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 1: 27-40; 131-145.
Gyldenstope, Count N. 1913. Birds collected by the Swedish Zoological expedition to Siam, 1911-1912. Kungl. Svenska Vet-Akad Handl 50 (8): 1-76.
Herbert, E.G. 1926. Nests and eggs of Birds in Central Siam (concl.). journ,. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 6 (4): 323-356.
Jorgensen, A. 1949. Siarns Vadefugle. Dansk. Orn. Foren. Tidsskr. 43: 60-80; 150-162; 216-237; 261-279. 
Melville, D.S. 1982. Shorebird studies in the Gulf of Siam, winter 1980/81. Unpublished manuscript.
Melville, D.S. and PD. Round. 1982. Further records of the Asian Dowitcher Limno- dromus semipalmatus from Thailand with Notes on its Distribution And Identitication. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 30 (2): 199-204. 
Parish, D. and DR. Wells. 1985. lnterwader Annual Report 1984. Interwader Publication No. 2, Interwader, Kuala Lumpur.
Lekagul. B., Round PD. and Komolphalin, K. 1985. Birdwalching for Palearctic migrants In Thailand. British Birds 78: 2-39.
Round, P.D. 1985. Records of the Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus in Thailand. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 2:5-7.
Rose, P.M. and DA. Scott. 1997. Waterfowl Population Estimates. Second Edition. Wetlands International Publ. 44. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
RuttanadakuI, N. and S. Ardseungnem. 1986. Evaluation of Shorebird hunting in Pattani Province, South Thailand. Interim report for WWF-US. PSU/lnterwader, Kuala Lumpur.
Scott, D.A. (ed). 1989. A Directory of Asian Wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
SEATEC (1996) Feasibility Study and Environment Impacts of Coastal defence and Erision Control measures in the Inner Gulf of Thailand. Report by SEATEC Consulting Engineers for the Harbour Department, Bangkok.
Silvius, MJ., W.J.M. Verheugt, and J. Iskandar. 1986. Coastal wetlands inventory of Southeast Sumatra. Study report No. 9. International Council for Bird Preservation. Cambridge, U.K. 
Starks. j. 1987. Report on Interwader Shorebird Surveys in Thailand. Interwader Publication No. 25. 69 pp.
Swenen, K., JR. Howes. N. Ruttanadakul, E. Slikvoort and S. Ardseungnern. 1986. Evaluation of Coastal wetlands in South Thiland. A joint project between Interwader And Prince of Songkhla University. Final Report. Interwader/PSU. Koala Lumpur.
Tunhikorn, S. and PD. Round. The status and conservation needs of migratory shorebirds In Thailand. Pp. 119-132 in DR. Wells and T. Mundkur. Conservation of Migratory Waterbirds and Their Wetland Habitats in the East Asian- Australasian Flyway. Proceedings of an International Workshop held at Kushiro, Japan, 28 Novcrnber-3 December 1994. Publication No. 116,Wetlands International, Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur. 
Wells, DR. and T. Mundkur, Conservation of  Migratory Waterbirds and Their Wetland Habitats in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway. Proceedings of an lnternational Workshop held at Kushiro, Japan, 28 November-3 December 1994. Publication No. 116, Wetlands International, Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur. 
Williamson, W.J.F. 1918. New or noteworthy bird-records from Siam. journ. Nat. hist. Soc. Slam 3; 15-42. 
Vongvisessomjai, S. 1992. Coastal Erosion in the Gulf of Thai and. Research and Development Journal of the Engineering Institute of Thailand3 (I): 38-5 8.